After the last post, let’s continue our exploration of Ancient China and its storytelling. We start the journey with the Zhou dynasty.
ZHOU DYNASTY (1046 BC – ABOUT 221 BC)
Although it is considered to be one of the longest dynasties, yet it saw its fair share of turbulent times. So much so that the Zhous had effectively lost power by 770 BC.
This dynasty’s era is primarily divided into three parts –
- The Western Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC – 771 BC)
- The Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC – 476 BC), when the empire was divided into dozens of competing states
- The Warring States Period (475 BC – 221 BC) that saw the emergence of several big, warring kingdoms
It’s impressive to note that despite so much turbulence, this dynasty ended up shaping the subsequent Chinese philosophy. The ‘Hundred Schools of Thought’ emerged. These were philosophies and thought schools that flourished during the latter two-thirds of the dynasty. The most pivotal and enduring out of these have been Confucianism, Taoism, Mohism, and Legalism.
Several texts based on these philosophies later on formed the body of work referred to as the ‘Classics’.
StoryTelling in Zhou period
The Bronze inscriptions from this era do show a rise in poetry with rhyming couplets. However, it should also be highlighted that except for the ‘Book of Songs’ (Shijing), most of this era’s literature was philosophical and didactic. There is little by way of purely fictional, solely for fun narratives.
The songs from ‘Shijing’ shed light on various aspects of the dynasty. Some focus on the founding myth, some are prayers and more ritualistic in nature. Yet some others focus on the daily lives of commoners. A lot of these works are anonymous.
Amongst the philosophers of the time, there were conflicting opinions regarding this book. On one hand, Confucius recommended studying it. However, on the other hand, another thinker Mo Di wanted to have music banned. He went as far as to ridicule the performance of these ancient songs.
These songs are believed to have been transmitted orally, before being finally captured. So the original lyrics had undergone numerous versions of changes. Historical evidence also suggests that some songs had been excluded from this collection on purpose.
Founding Myth of Zhou
The first surviving written account about this dynasty’s founding myth is from the ‘Great Records of the Grand Historian’ (Shiji) by Sima Qian. It was authored way later in the Han dynasty period. We will cover this later on in the post in detail.
This founding story contains many fantastical elements like miraculous conception, surviving abandonment as a young child and rising as a culture hero.
Heavenly Mandate – Tianming
This is an ancient Chinese belief that is used to legitimize a ruler’s right to the throne. According to it, the heavens bestow their mandate on a virtuous ruler. But if the ruler was overthrown, then it was seen as a sign of the withdrawal of this mandate.
Another common belief was that the natural disasters were the heavens’ way of showing their displeasure with the current ruler. It was no wonder then that events of natural disasters were often followed by periods of civil unrest and uprisings.
While in the early concepts it did start as heavens bestowing the mandate, yet later on this outlook morphed into something more ‘scientific’. It started looking at a ruler’s behavior and characteristics that attracted followers. Hence, allowing them to step into their destined role as a ruler.
Even if this mandate was first mentioned in relation to the Zhou dynasty founding myth. Yet it continued to be referred to even in later dynasties to justify a ruler’s flourishing rule or their downfall.
Art of War – Sun Tzu
Perhaps, one of the most famous works from this era is the book ‘Art of War’ by Sun Tzu. It has shaped and influenced military strategies all over the world, until this day. It has seen various language adaptations and is read worldwide even now.
IMPERIAL CHINA
For the sake of accuracy, it’s imperative to note that the era of Ancient China ends with Zhou dynasty. With the Qin dynasty that came next, arose the time period referred to as ‘Imperial China’.
However, we will still continue on with the next two dynasties in line. Since, I have already mentioned ‘Shiji’ by Sima Qian, I believe it’s only right that we see how and when did it actually come about.
QIN DYNASTY (221 BC – 206 BC)
Qin dynasty rose to power after the fall of Zhou. It’s one of the shortest as it only lasted for 15 years.
Despite it’s relatively short existence, it’s impact was not to be denied. This was the first time ever, that China had been unified and formally established under a single banner. Hence, denoting the start of the ‘Imperial China’.
It’s most famous contributions include ‘The Terracotta Army’ and building parts of ‘The Great Wall of China’.
One of the most infamous event from this dynasty is called ‘Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars’. As the disturbing name suggests, the then ruler, had ordered burning of most of the literature and books from the previous dynasties. This was done at the behest of his trusted advisor – in order to avoid the comparison of his reign to the antecedents. He also ordered the burying of any scholars found in possession of these banned texts.
This along with other tyrannical commands like exorbitant taxes is believed to have led to the dynasty’s downfall. Following the death of the founder king, the dynasty collapsed and was replaced by the Han dynasty.
HAN DYNASTY (206 BC – 220 AD)
It was founded by ‘Liu Bang’ who emerged victorious in the ‘Chu-Han Contention’ following the downfall of the Qin dynasty. This dynasty is also referred to as the ‘golden age’ in Chinese history. During this time, the Chinese territory extended to most of China proper and even to areas far west.
It laid a solid, stable foundation for the form of governance of a unified state under a central imperial bureaucracy. This then lasted intermittently for upcoming two millennia.
In history, this dynasty is famous for it’s revolutionary invention of paper. It’s also known for the establishment of the ‘Silk Road’.
StoryTelling in Han Dynasty
While there is a dispute amongst the scholars regarding the exact period of origin of the ‘Art of Professional Storytelling’ (‘Shuoshu’), yet some do attribute it to this particular dynasty. They base this inference on the famous ‘Telling and Singing Statuettes’ that were excavated from the western Han.
We are already aware that stories were being performed orally. So, it becomes difficult to separate the earliest references; do these statuettes depict oral storytelling in general or do they refer to the art of ‘Shuoshu’ in specific?
Rise of New Form of Poetry
This era also saw the rise of a new form of colloquial poetry called ‘fu’. This form was represented by a structure that started and ended with a prose stanza, in a question-answer format. Rest of it comprised of rhymed verses.
During this era, art was given it’s due. As part of cultural preservation, it saw the establishment of ‘Bureau of Music (Yuefu)’. This bureau was responsible for collecting and preserving not only the official songs performed in courts but also the ones sang and played by the commoners.
One of such preserved ballads covers a well-known tale that arose from the Chu-Han Contention Period. It depicts the tragic love story of ‘Xiang Yu’ and ‘Lady Yu’. This ballad has received a film adaptation in modern times. Some other famous works from this collection include pieces titled ‘Orphan’ and ‘The Song of Luofu’.
Shiji by Sima Qian
The monumental work of ‘Shiji’ by Sima Qian came to existence during this dynasty. It was one of its kind attempt to record the historical events until the author’s time. This work records a span of 2000 years and was produced over the span of 18 whopping years. This work introduced a method of historical archive organization that set the bar for upcoming works. To this day, it is one of the major sources of Chinese history.
The author not only revolutionized the history recording method, but also added his own unique flair; managing to bring the historical events and the personalities alive. Subsequently, his style became an inspiration not only for future historians but also for fiction authors.
Moral Education for Women
This dynasty also prioritized the moral education of women, utilizing a compilation entitled ‘The Biographies of Exemplary Women’ as a textbook. As indicated by its title, this work was assembled from biographies sourced from historical texts by the scholar ‘Liu Xiang’. This influential tome extolled virtues such as self-sacrifice, obedience, and the safeguarding of one’s honor, among others. It remained a standard reference for approximately two millennia.
Parting Thoughts
Tracing these works back gives us invaluable insight. Reading these myths and legends reveals the influences that have shaped Chinese philosophies and culture. A lot of Confucius inspired motifs can be seen sprinkled throughout these works. They were also used as a tool to impart morals like virtue, filial piety, respect for elders, etc.
Some of these works also shed light on class separation and social hierarchy based on status and age. As the class separation solidified, so do we see a lot of tales of star-crossed lovers. In these tales, the lovers are doomed to separation by either family opposition or other circumstances. They also shed light on common people and their struggles.
Another point of note is that even though the historical legends themselves have fictional or mythical elements. Yet until this point in time, the works revolve around real events and real personalities. Narratives that are purely fictional do not seem to be the norm at all.
Looking at the modern stories it makes me wonder, are we truly so different? Our ancestors shared the same turmoil, the same fears and hopes and desires – even across cultures. Although, I do have to acknowledge, that while the flavors of our emotions have stayed the same yet our sensibilities and moralities have definitely evolved.
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